The White Willow--A Study

It was that time of stillness in early spring when the snow has fled but the intractable greys and browns of winter persist. I set out into the veil of hibernation, in search of a restive spring.  I walked along Wilket Creek park in Toronto and amid the winter duff a great gnarly white willow tree beckoned

... So, I got closer and closer and closer...

What I saw excited and intrigued. I saw moss, lichen, and fungi nestled in deep crevasses of rope-like bark. The ridges were so deep that when I captured one with my camera, the next one looked like another tree in the background. Seen up close, the bark texture resembled bone and stone. In one huge crevice a spider had made its web and had ensnared some unfortunate insect for its dinner. In another cavern-like fissure, I saw the brilliant yellow-green of a new lichen. Here, amid the “dead” bark, an entire community was stirring with the freshness of spring. The different bark textures of trees attract different species that live on it. The deep fissures and crevices on the bark of white willow provide a wonderful haven for various epiphytes such as moss and lichen, and many species of insects and spiders. The invertebrates, in turn, attract birds that feed on them.

Willow Bark

The bark of a willow plays a similar role as our skin for us. It protects the tree, particularly its soft living and growing layer. Tree bark is also home to many species, providing an important micro-ecosystem in the forest.

Willow bark protects the living and growing layer called cambium. Every growing season, the living cambium adds a new layer of cells to the xylem, which it surrounds. The outer edge of the cambium produces another layer of cells that make phloem, which transports sugars from the leaves to the rest of the tree. Outside that, most trees have a layer known as the cork cambium, which produces the cork – the tough outer layer of the tree. This outer layer is all that we usually see of the bark.

Willow as Warrior

The bark of many trees make chemicals that protect against fungal and insect attack. Birch (Betula) bark is high in volatile oils—which make it great for lighting fires—and is so waterproof and resistant to decay that tubes of birch bark can still be found on the forest floor after the wood inside has decayed. Bark of most oak trees (Querqus) is high in tannins, which are toxic and protect the tree from insects.

The willow has salicylic acid in its bark, branches and leaves that helps mediate the tree’s resistance against various pathogens. It does this by inducing the production of pathogenesis-related proteins through a rapid signaling process. The acid helps mediate systematic acquired resistance in which a pathogenic attack on one part of the plant induces resistance in other parts. The signal moves to nearby plants when the salicylic acid converts to the volatile ester methyl salicylate. Willow communicates...

Willow as Provider

Willows enact an important ecological function by colonizing areas that have been disturbed and undergoing successional recovery. Because they grow quickly and easily propagate using stem cuttings, willows can also be used to vegetate stream banks to help prevent erosion and sometimes to re-vegetate other types of disturbed lands. Willows are also common food—especially in winter—for mammals such as deer, moose, and rabbits, among others. Willows are also an important source of nectar for bees in early spring when few other species of pollinators are flowering.

Willows are also a good source of renewable energy, which may prove important in the future. The willow biomass can be burned directly, or it can be chemically converted into more easily portable liquid fuels such as alcohol or a synthetic, petroleum-like mixture. Willow twigs are flexible and have been used to weave baskets, for caning, and to make woven fences and other lattices.

Willow as Healer

Willows have a long history of medicinal use. Many cultures are known to have chewed willow twigs to relieve pain and fever. The original source from which salicylic acid was extracted was the bark of the white willow (S. alba), a native of Europe. This chemical is used to manufacture acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), an analgesic useful for treating pain, fever, and inflammation.

Willow as Magic

The magic and legends associated with the willow tree are often bound up with water—its preferred habitat—and the moon. Hecate, the Greek goddess was the moon and of willow, taught sorcery and witchcraft. The priestesses of Helice, also associated with water, used willow in their magic and witchcraft. The Greek poet Orpheus carried willow branches on his adventures in the Underworld. With its ability to regrow from pollarded trees and cuttings, the willow symbolizes renewal, growth, vitality and immortality to the Chinese.

References:

Brown, R.W., Lawrence, M.J. & Pope, J. 2004. “Animals – Tracks, Trails and Signs.” Hamlyn, London.

Freedman, Bill. “Willow Family (Salicaceae)—Economic and Ecological Importance of Willows. Online: https://science.jrank.org/pages/7398/Willow-Family-Salicaceae-Economic-ecological-importance-willows.html

Judd, Walter S., Christopher Campbell, Elizabeth A. Kellogg, Michael J. Donoghue, and Peter Stevens. 2002. “Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach.” 2nd ed. with CD-ROM. Suderland, MD: Sinauer.

Klein, R.M.1987. “The Green World. An Introduction to Plants and People.” Harper and Row, New York.

Mitchell, A. 1982. “Trees of Britain and Northern Europe.” Collins, London.

Puplett, Dan. “Tree Bark.” Trees for Life. Online: https://treesforlife.org.uk/forest/forest-ecology/tree-bark/

Steven, H.M. & Carlisle, A. 1959. The Native Pinewoods of Scotland. Oliver & Boyd: Edinburgh.

Street, L. & S. 2002. “The importance of Aspens for lichen.” In: Cosgrove, P & Amphlett, A. (eds.). The Biodiversity and Management of Aspen Woodlands: Proceedings of a one-day conference held in Kingussie, Scotland, on 25th May 2001. The Cairngorms Local Biodiversity Action Plan: Grantown-on Spey.

Nina Munteanu

Nina Munteanu is an ecologist and internationally published author of award-nominated speculative novels, short stories and non-fiction. She is co-editor of Europa SF and currently teaches writing courses at George Brown College and the University of Toronto. Visit www.ninamunteanu.ca for the latest on her books. Nina’s recent book is the bilingual “La natura dell’acqua / The Way of Water” (Mincione Edizioni, Rome). Her latest “Water Is…” is currently an Amazon Bestseller and NY Times ‘year in reading’ choice of Margaret Atwood. Nina's latest novel "A Diary in the Age of Water" will be released by Inanna Publications in 2020.

We Need to Plant a Trillion Trees…

That’s what scientist Thomas Crowther of the University of Zurich is telling us will successfully neutralize CO₂ emissions and combat climate change. “According to his findings,” writes Sophie Hirsh of Greenmatters.com, “we need to start planting more trees — 1.2 trillion, to be exact. Considering how serious of a problem climate change is right now, it would be pretty awesome if something as straightforward as planting trees could completely cancel out the CO₂ emissions of the past decade.” Hirsh adds that Crowther used the current estimate of three trillion trees on Earth, to suggest that there is sufficient room to plant a further 1.2 trillion trees—in empty patches around the world—that will successfully cancel out the last 10 years of CO₂ emissions.

Unfortunately, it isn’t as straight forward as Hirsh is hoping. Hirsh’s article and the one it was based on in The Independent by Josh Gabbatiss, was overly vague and overly simple. A program such as this, based on simple math is doomed to fail. It is doomed to fail if it is not based on a deeper understanding of the functional ecology of trees and forests.

Below are three questions that need thorough and reliable answers for such a program to succeed:

1.     Where will this room be? Gabbatiss tells us that the team will not target “urban or agricultural areas, just degraded or abandoned lands.” Is that good enough for the trees? Degraded land? Trees require a healthy undisturbed area to function—or they will not serve as ideal carbon sinks. Trees function at the level of community. The work of foresters, botanists and ecologists have proven that forests act as complex systems, connected underground, above-ground and in the air by a living and communicating network of fungi, bacteria, insects and mammals. These researchers include: Suzanne Simard, Annie Desrochers, Peter Wohlleben, Velemir Ninkovic, and Diana Beresford-Kroeger, among many others. Willy-nilly planting of trees in “convenient abandoned places” will not produce functional trees that will act as healthy carbon sinks. They may, in fact, act as carbon sources—particularly if they grow unhealthy. We need to ensure that our trees are safe within a healthy forest community.

Old beech tree

2.     What kind of trees will be planted and what conditions will be met to ensure they act as carbon sink, not source? (e.g. density, diversity, ecosystem parameters?). “Forests aren’t simply collections of trees,” argues Suzanne Simard, forest ecologist at the University of British Columbia. “They are complex systems with hubs and networks that overlap and connect trees to allow them to communicate, and provide avenues for feedback and adaptation. This makes the forest resilient through many hub trees and overlapping networks.” In her book The Global Forest: 40 Ways Trees Can Save Us, botanist and medical biochemist Diana Beresford-Kroeger tells us that “a functioning forest is a complex form of life. It is interconnected by its own flora and driven by the mammals, the amphibians and insects in it. It is kept in place by fungi, algae, lichens, bacteria, viruses, and bacteriophages.” Harley Rustad writes in  The Walrus: “Old growth forests are not simply original; they are complete. A fallen cedar trunk can remain mostly intact for a century, slowly decomposing. Such a ‘nurse log’ provides extensive opportunities for seedlings to take root and a great complexity of life—invertebrates, fungi, birds, small mammals—to flourish. Recent research published in the scientific journal Nature has dispelled 40 years of dogma by confirming that the oldest trees in a forest capture the most carbon from the atmosphere. “Not only are these [old-growth] forests more efficient at absorbing carbon from the atmosphere than smaller second-growth trees, they also present one of the few environments in the world where large carnivores (wolves, mountain lions, and bears) and ungulates (deer and elk) exist alongside some of the biggest trees. The Douglas firs in particular play a key role, transferring nutrients from their great heights to smaller saplings below through mycorrhizal fungi that link together the roots of various species in an underground network,” writes Rustad. To fulfill these crucial roles in ecosystem integrity and ultimately planetary integrity, forests need to remain intact. Intact portions of the forest also need to remain connected. Corridors for wildlife and other biological processes need to exist to retain functionality and resilience. Forests store large amounts of carbon in living trees and soil. During any kind of disturbance such as a wildfire, the forest acts as a source of carbon, emitting large amounts of CO₂ (along with the potent greenhouse gases of methane and nitrous oxide). Forest management activities responsible for shifting a forest from a sink to a source include: harvesting; monopoly tree planting aimed at production and not at ecosystem health; management that increases the chance of wildfires, insect infestation and drought. If we are going to succeed with planting trees, we must do more than plant trees; we must plant healthy forests and let them grow old. 

3.     For all the planting going on—does this address all the cutting? Quoting my own article in Impakter, “Humanity is currently cutting down trees at a rate of 15 billion a year. We are losing forests the size of New York City daily; every 100 days we lose forests the size of Scotland; within a single year we lose forest ecosystems the size of Italy.” If we plant but cut at the same if not greater rate, what are we gaining? Deforestation releases a massive carbon sink into the atmosphere that drives global warming. It is largely responsible for reducing populations of wildlife by half in the last 40 years, and for starting the sixth massive extinction event. In forests anywhere between 15 and 800 years of age, the net carbon balance of the forest and soils is usually positive – meaning they absorb more carbon dioxide than they release. “If you are concerned about offsetting greenhouse gas emissions and look at old forests from nothing more than a carbon perspective, the best thing to do is leave them alone,” said Beverly Law, professor of forest science at OSU and director of the AmeriFlux network, a group of 90 research sites in North and Central America that helps to monitor the current global “budget” of carbon dioxide. When an old growth forest is harvested, Law said, studies show that there’s a new input of carbon to the atmosphere for about 5-20 years, before the growing young trees begin to absorb and sequester more carbon than they give off. The creation of new forests, whether naturally or by humans, is often associated with disturbance to soil and the previous vegetation, resulting in decomposition that exceeds for some period the net primary productivity of re-growth.” We must combine tree planting with a cessation of massive clearcutting. If we are going to succeed, we must cease deforestation and clearcutting cutting sustainably (e.g. selective cutting, etc.), keep our forests intact and let them grow old. 

I agree with Dr Crowther’s argument that “undervaluing trees means scientists have also been massively underestimating the potential for forests to combat climate change.” Project Drawdown, a group that compares the merits of different emission-cutting techniques, currently places onshore wind power and improved recycling of fridges and air conditioners at the top of its list; trees come only in fifteenth place. Crowther’s research suggested much more CO₂ capture by trees than previously thought, potentially placing them at a much higher rank to effectively combat climate change.

BUT: We can’t just plant trees; we must take care of them by keeping the forests currently in place and taking care of the global forest.

Ecologist Suzanne Simard tells us that trees have a sophisticated and interconnected social network existing underground. Diana Beresford-Kroeger tells us that this functioning complex forest is interconnected by the diverse community that forms it: “other flora, mammals, amphibians, fungi, algae, lichens, bacteria, viruses and bacteriophages. The primogenitors of the forests are trees. They communicate by carbon-coded calls and mass-market themselves by infrasound. The atmosphere links forests into the heavens and the great oceans. The human family is both caught and held in that web of life.”

A world of infinite, biological pathways connect trees and allow them to communicate, and allow the forest to behave as if it’s a single organism.—Suzanne Simard

It’s about time that we treat the forest as a single organism…

Nina Munteanu

Nina Munteanu is an ecologist and internationally published author of award-nominated speculative novels, short stories and non-fiction. She is co-editor of Europa SF and currently teaches writing courses at George Brown College and the University of Toronto. Visit www.ninamunteanu.ca for the latest on her books. Nina’s recent book is the bilingual “La natura dell’acqua / The Way of Water” (Mincione Edizioni, Rome). Her latest “Water Is…” is currently an Amazon Bestseller and NY Times ‘year in reading’ choice of Margaret Atwood. Her latest novel "A Diary in the Age of Water" will be released by Inanna Publications in 2020.

Blog Tour of Audiobook The Splintered Universe Trilogy January 8 through 28th

Audiobookworm Promotions has organized an Audiobook series blog tour from January 8th through to January 28th for Nina Munteanu’s “The Splintered Universe Trilogy,” a science fiction detective adventure, starring the indomitable Galactic Guardian, Rhea Hawke.

“Dawn Harvey breathed incredible life into the lead character, Rhea Hawke–both sarcastic and vulnerable at the same time; a detective with a cynical edge, and sultry voice tinged with wiry sarcasm. The story unfolded through Rhea’s narrative like an old film noir as she unraveled mysteries that led to the greatest one: her own.”–Amazon Review

Book 1, Outer Diverse: January 8-14
Book 2, Inner Diverse: January 15-21
Book 3, Metaverse: January 21-28

Follow the tour with blog sites that will include spotlights, reviews, audio excerpts, guest posts, interviews of author, narrator (and character Rhea Hawke!)